November 2019 – Fix Bayonets!

The Eighth Marines – Beginnings

It took the United States a few years to enter into the conflagration we today call World War I, but when the Congress authorized military action, an immediate expansion of the Marine Corps was ordered. A number of regiments were brought into existence for employment in Europe and in areas outside the war zone. By late 1918, the Marine Corps had 14 active regiments. Only four of these would serve in Europe; the rest were ordered for service in the Caribbean, or remained stationed in the United States.

The Eighth Marine Regiment (8^th Marines) was activated at Quantico, Virginia on 9 October 1917. The regiment initially consisted of four units: Headquarters Company, and the 105^th, 106^th, and 107^th Rifle Companies [Note 1]. The regiment was augmented by the 103^rd, 104^th, 108^th, 109^th and 110^th Rifle Companies on 13 October. Two additional companies were organized on 22 October: 111^th and 112^th Companies. Major Ellis B. Miller was designated as the regimental commander. He was a 37-year old Marine from Iowa.

At this time, Marine Corps regiments lacked a battalion structure, but in 1917, the Marine Corps adopted the deliberate policy of shaping its regiments to conform to the US Army’s regimental structure. The reason for this was that Major General Hugh L. Scott, serving as Army Chief of Staff, insisted that Marines deployed to France be organized identically with US Army units [Note 2]. This made perfect sense in terms of deploying combat forces on the Western Front. Marine regiments would henceforth be organized with a headquarters company and three infantry battalions. Each battalion would consist of a command element and four rifle companies. The size of regiments would average 3,000 men.

The first orders received by the 8^th Marines indicated that it could be sent to Texas for a possible thrust into Mexico.

Relations between Mexico and the United States had been strained since the Mexican-American War (1846-48). Since then, Texas and other border states had been subjected to bandit raids from Mexico and insurrections from within Hispanic communities in South Texas. The Mexican Revolution (1910-20) only increased these tension.

In 1914, Mexican authorities arrested nine sailors while their ship was anchored in Tampico. The Mexicans released the sailors, but the US Naval commander demanded an apology and a 21-gun salute. The Mexicans did apologize, but refused to offer the 21-gun honors. As President Wilson consulted with Congress over the matter of a possible invasion of Mexico, US intelligence assets learned that a steamer with German registry was attempting to deliver weapons and munitions for Victoriano Huerta, who had seized control of the Mexican government [Note 3]. In response, Wilson authorized the Navy to seize the port city of Veracruz.

In 1916, the Mexican Bandit Pancho Villa crossed the US border with a sizable force and attacked the New Mexico town of Columbus. Villa assaulted the resident detachment of the 13^th Cavalry Regiment, burned the town, seized 100 horses, and made off with other military supplies. Eighteen Americans died during the assault; Villa lost about 80 of his banditos.

In January 1917, British Intelligence intercepted a cable from the German Foreign Office addressed to Mexico’s president proposing a military alliance; should the United States enter the war against Germany, a Mexican invasion of the southern portion of the US border would be rewarded by the recovery of Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico. President Carranza referred the matter to a military commission, which concluded that the proposed invasion of former Mexican territory would be neither possible or desirable.

With this as a backdrop, the 8^th Marines were ordered to Fort Crockett near Galveston as a contingency force should it be necessary to seize and hold the oil fields at Tampico. The regiment departed for Galveston aboard the USS Hancock on 9 November. A week later, the Marines were creating a campsite at Fort Crockett.

In August 1918, the 9^th Regiment and Headquarters, 3^rd Provisional Brigade arrived at Fort Crockett. The 8^th Marines became part of that Brigade. The Marines remained at Fort Crockett until the end of the war with Germany, but it was not necessary to deploy these Marines into Mexico. Meanwhile, Mexican officials were well aware of the presence of these Marines and their purpose. The placement of these Marines may have materially avoided further conflict with Mexico.

The regiment returned to Philadelphia on 25 April and was deactivated the next day. By the end of 1919, a decision was taken to reactivate the 8^th Marines for service in Haiti—an intervention that would not go away [Note 4]. A reorganization of Marine Corps units in Haiti, precipitated by an overall reduction in the post-war strength of the U. S. Marine Corps, began in December 1919. The 3^rd Battalion, 2^nd Marine Regiment (3/2) was redesignated 1/8 with its field and staff [Note 5], 36^th, 57^th, 63^rd, 65^th, 100^th, 148^th, and 196^th rifle companies. 8^th Marine headquarters was not activated until the following month.

On 5 January 1920, the 8^th Marines command element was activated at Port-au-Prince, the capital city of Haiti. Field and Staff, 1/8 was deactivated and its personnel transferred to Headquarters Company, 8^th Marines. 8^th Marines headquarters assumed control of subordinate numbered companies. This was the organization of the 8^th Marines for the next five years. The regiment operated with less than 600 men; it’s commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Louis M. Little. Colonel Little was an asset in Haiti because he was fluent in the French language.

The Marines were well-aware of a rumor that Cacos bandits were planning to assault the capital city. The attack came at 0400 hours on 15 January 1920. Three-hundred bandits assaulted in three separate columns. Second Lieutenant Gerald C. Thomas commanded an urban patrol of twelve Marines. This patrol and a 50-man group of bandits surprised each other on one of the city’s side streets. Thomas ordered his Marines to hold their fire as the bandits marched toward them. When the bandits had advanced further, they opened fire on the Marines, but Thomas ordered his men to hold until the Cacos were directly in front of their position. The concentrated fire from the Marines literally destroyed the bandit formation, killing 20 insurgents. Thomas’ Marines suffered three wounded. The bandits retreated from the city [Note 6].

In pursuit of the bandit leader Benoit Batraville, Colonel Little adopted aggressive “search and destroy” operations. Marine patrols were constantly in the field looking for a confrontation with the insurgents. This attention forced the rebels to be constantly on the move. Batraville, however, managed to elude capture, which made the Marines even more determined to find and arrest him.

On 4 April 1920, the Marines experienced two significant encounters with the Cacos. At 0700, Sergeant Laurence Muth observed a group of bandits on the summit of Mount Michel. Muth instantly ordered his men to take firing positions and open fire. Unexpectedly, another group of bandits, who were planning to ambush the Marines, opened fire on Muth’s right flank. Sergeant Muth was killed in the first volley; in the ensuing firefight, ten bandits were dispatched but the Marines, being overwhelmed in numbers, withdrew. Sgt. Muth’s body was left behind. An enraged Colonel Little immediately dispatched 21 patrols, with himself leading one of them to the place where Muth was killed. Catching a group of Cacos off guard, the Marines initiated a firefight that resulted in 25 enemy killed. After the fight, Little discovered Sgt. Muth’s remains. He had been decapitated and his heart had been cut out.

Commanding the 100^th Company, 8^th Marines in the area of Marche Canard, Captain Jesse L. Perkins led his Marines into the countryside to search for Batraville. Personally leading a squad of eleven Marines on 19 May, Perkins became aware of a large Cacos camp within a six hour march. He proceeded to the location with the assistance of native guides. At 0600, Perkins and his Marines encountered an outpost a short distance from the enemy’s main camp. Perkins sent Second Lieutenant Edgar G. Kirkpatrick with seven Marines to envelop the camp site. Captain Perkins, Sergeant William F. Passmore, Sergeant Albert A. Tauber, and Private Emery L. Entrekin [Note 7] assaulted the camp. Although greatly outnumbered, Perkins gambled on the element of surprise. Panic ensued once the Cacos observed the Marines rushing toward their position. Disregarding enemy fire, Perkins and his Marines rushed forward while firing their weapons, momentarily stunning the rebels. Benoit Batraville then appeared to take charge of the rebels. Recognizing Batraville, Sergeant Passmore turned and fired at Batraville with his Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR), killing him instantly.

At the sound of the rifle fire, Lieutenant Kirkpatrick immediately led his seven Marines into a flanking assault. The firefight lasted another 15 minutes resulting in 10 enemy killed and several more seriously wounded. Sergeant Muth’s pistol was found on Batraville’s body.

Although the Cacos leader had been killed, the Marines continued to conduct patrols in order to keep the rebels from reorganizing around a new leader. Many of these patrols were conducted on horses and mules, since these animals were an excellent form of transportation over rough terrain [Note 8].

Problems with Cacos insurgents abated over time, but the hills were infested with bandits who traditionally preyed on defenseless women who were taking their wares to market. To solve this problem, Colonel Little had his Marines disguise themselves as women. When attacked by robbers, the Marines drew their weapons and resolved the problem. After a few of these encounters, Haitian thieves left the women alone.

As the insurgency died down, the Marines undertook other duties, such as mapping the countryside, road construction, building sanitation facilities, and training the local constabulary. When the 8^th Marines was no longer needed in Haiti, it was once again deactivated and all assigned Marines were transferred to the 2^nd Marine Regiment. We will not hear of the 8^th Marines again until the outbreak of World War II.

Sources:

Santelli, J. S. A Brief History of the 8^th Marines. Washington: History and Museums Division, Headquarters, U. S. Marine Corps, 1976
Rottman, G. L. U. S. Marine Corps World War II Order of Battle, 1939-45. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2002

Endnotes:

At this time, rifle companies were numerically designated.
Regiments not ordered for service in Europe maintained the traditional Marine Corps structure. After World War I, Marine Corps regiments gradually adopted the Army’s regimental system.
A portion of the munitions shipment had originated with the Remington Arms Company.
Naval forces had been sent to Haiti in 1915 to protect American and other foreign interests. A series of revolts and disturbances led to an insurrection of Cacos bandits. The intervention dragged on for years as Marines struggled to bring stability to a Republic in shambles. Given what we know about Haiti today, the effort was a waste of American lives, time, and money.
At this time, field and staff was the accepted title for what would later become Headquarters & Service Company.
Thomas later served as Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps and retired in 1956. He passed away in 1984.
Perkins, Passmore, Taubert, and Entrekin were awarded the Navy Cross medal.
While Marines did use horses and mules, at no time were Marines employed as cavalry units. Of further interest, the US Army never developed a cavalry organization until after the Civil War. Before that, the Army employed dragoons, which were mounted infantry.

Divided Nation – Divided Corps

EGA 1850-002 In the first few years following the War of 1812, the United States Marine Corps fell into a period of institutional malaise. There were two reasons for this: first, the United States government was unwilling to fund a corps of Marines in larger numbers than needed for service aboard ships of the U. S. Navy. From the outset, the US Marine Corps has always received scant funding, staffing, and equipment. Second, as was the custom in those days, Marine Corps officers were appointed and commissioned through political patronage. The sons of wealthy or politically connected families received commissions; it did not matter whether these appointees were good leaders or even skilled in the art and science of armed warfare. Lacking quality leadership and innovation, the Marine Corps simply “existed.” Political patronage continues to exist in the selection of candidates for the United States’ military and naval academies; those wishing to attend either of these must be nominated of a member of Congress.

In 1820, Archibald Henderson was appointed as the Marine Corps’ fifth commandant. He remained in this position for 38 years—so long, in fact, that he became convinced that the Marine Corps belonged to him. He willed the Marine Corps to his son, but of course, the will didn’t stand up in court. During Henderson’s tenure, however, the Marine Corps undertook expeditionary missions in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Key West, in West Africa, the Falkland Islands, Sumatra, and against the Seminole Indians as part of the Seminole Indian [1] and Creek Indian Wars [2].

Andrew Jackson was not a fan of the Marine Corps, but Commandant Henderson was able to thwart Jackson’s attempt to disband the Marine Corps and combine it with the U. S. Army. In 1834, congress passed the Act for the Better Organization of the Marine Corps. The Act stipulated that the Marine Corps was an integral part of the Department of the Navy. Jackson’s attempt was the first of many challenges to the Marine Corps as part of the United States Armed Forces. In any case, Archibald Henderson personally led two battalions of his Marines (half of the entire Marine Corps back then) in the Seminole War (1835). In 1846, US Marines participated in the Mexican American War (1846-48) and made their famed assault on the Chapultepec Palace, later celebrated in the Marine Corps Hymn.

Henderson’s tenure as Commandant ended with his death in 1859 (aged 75 years). In 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected President of the United States and civil war loomed on the near horizon. After Lincoln’s inauguration, southern states began to secede from the union. Many officers of the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps were from southern states; out of a sense of duty to their home states, officers began to resign their commissions. About one-third of the Marine Corps’ commissioned officer strength resigned and accepted commissions in the Confederate States of America. Essentially, this large migration of officers left the US Marine Corps with mediocre officers. A battalion of Marine recruits, having been thrown into the First Battle of Manassas (Virginia) in 1861 were soundly defeated by rebel forces.

USMC Infantry 1862 Union Marines performed blockade duties, some sea-based amphibious operations, and traditional roles while afloat. US Marines also participated in the assault and occupation of New Orleans and Baton Rouge. These were signal events that enabled the union to gain control of the lower Mississippi River and denied the CSA a viable base of operations on the Gulf Coast. In any case, poor leadership had a negative impact on the morale of serving Marines. Few officers were interested in commanding Marine detachments or battalions; they were content to secure administrative positions. In total, the USMC strength in 1861 was 93 officers and 3,074 enlisted men. President Lincoln authorized an additional 1,000 enlisted men, but a shortage of funding hindered the recruiting effort. Marine recruits were not offered recruitment bonuses (as in the Army and Navy), their length of enlistment was longer, and they earned $3.00 less pay each month.

The U. S. Marine Corps did not enjoy the confidence of the Congress in 1863 and congress proposed transferring the Marines to Army control. The draft resolution was defeated when Colonel Commandant John Harris [3] died in office, the Secretary of the Navy forced several officers to resign or retire, and Major Jacob Zeilin [4] was named to replace Harris. Zeilin, although 59-years old at the time, was a combat veteran with a good reputation, whose duties were executed well enough to earn him the first Marine Corps commission to general (flag rank) officer. Still, neither Harris nor Zeilin considered the employment of Marines as an amphibious assault force.

Despite poor leadership among the officers, seventeen enlisted Marines received the Medal of Honor for conspicuous gallantry during the Civil War. Thirteen of these men served as noncommissioned officers and performed the duties of gun captain or gun-division commander. By the end of 1864, the recruitment of Marines improved with changes to conscription laws and additional funds to pay a recruiting bounty. During the war, 148 Marines were killed in action; 312 additional men perished from other causes (illness/accident).

CSMC Uniform 1862 The Confederate States Marine Corps (CSMC) was established on 16 March 1861 with an authorized strength of 46 officers and 944 enlisted men. The actual strength of the CSMC never came close to its authorized strength. In 1864, the total strength of the CSMC was 539 officers and men. Heading the CSMC as Colonel Commandant Lloyd J. Beale, who previously served the US Army as its paymaster. He had no experience as a Marine, which meant that his subordinate officers, who were Marines, had little regard for his leadership ability. He was simply a bureaucrat, and everyone treated him as such.

The CSMC was modeled after the USMC, but there were important differences. In the south, Marine companies were structured as permanent organizations. The fife was replaced by the bugle, and CSMC uniforms were designed somewhat similar to those of the Royal Marines.

Confederate Marines guarded naval stations at Mobile, Savannah, Charleston, Richmond, and Wilmington and manned naval shore batteries at Pensacola, Hilton Head, Fort Fisher, and Drewery’s Bluff. Sea-going detachments served aboard Confederate ships, including the CSS Virginia (Merrimack) in 1861, and as part of the naval brigade at the Battle of Saylor’s Creek. The Confederate Marines did perform well-enough, but as with their Union counterpart, the officer corps was plagued with laziness and paltry bickering over such things as seniority, shore duty, and administrative (staff) assignments. The enlisted men, as has become a Marine Corps tradition, observed this petty behavior, shrugged their shoulders or rolled their eyes, and went on with their duties.

The Confederate States of America ceased to exist with General Robert E. Lee’s surrender at the Appomattox Court House. In the post-war period, U. S. Marines began a period of introspection about the roles and missions suitable for a small corps of Marines. The Navy’s transition from sail to steam negated the need for Marine sharpshooters aboard ship. Without masts and rigging, there was no place for Marines to perch. What evolved was an amphibious role for Marines during interventions and incursions to protect American lives and property.

In 1867, Marines took part in a punitive expedition to Formosa [5] (Taiwan). A few years later in 1871, Marines participated in a diplomatic expedition to Korea —its purpose to support the American delegation to Korea, ascertain the fate of the merchant ship General Sherman, and to sign a treaty assuring aid to distressed US merchant sailors. When the Koreans attacked US Navy ships, the diplomatic effort turned into a punitive one. In the subsequent battle of Ganghwa, which involved 500 sailors and 100 Marines, nine sailors and six Marines were awarded the Medal of Honor for their intrepidity in armed conflict. Neither of these two expeditions were overwhelmingly successful, but the action did manage to start a conversation within the Navy and Marine Corps about amphibious warfare.

USMC Sgt 1890 Then, in October 1873, a diplomatic dispute involving the United States, United Kingdom, and Spain caused concern in the United States about its readiness for war with a European power. It is known as the Virginius Affair. Virginius was a fast American-made trade ship hired by Cuban insurrectionists to land men and munitions in Cuba, to be used to attack the Spanish regime there. The ship was captured by Spain, who declared that the men on board were “pirates” and Spain’s intention to execute them. Many of these freebooters were American and British citizens. Spain did in fact execute 53 of these men and only halted the process when the British government demanded it. There was talk inside the US that the American government might declare war on Spain. Eventually, the matter was resolved without resorting to arms, but the incident did set into motion a new (and henceforth, ongoing) role for the U. S. Marines.

In 1874, the US Navy and Marines conducted brigade sized landing exercises in Key West. Additional training exercises were conducted on Gardiners Island in 1884, and Newport, Rhode Island in 1887. Subsequently, in the 35-years between the end of the American Civil War and the end of the 19th century, Marines were engaged in 28 separate interventions.

Sources:

Sullivan, D. M. The United States Marine Corps in the Civil War. Four volumes, 1997-2000). White Mane Publishing.
Scharf, J. T. History of the Confederate States Navy from its Organization to the surrender of its last vessel. Fairfax Press, 1977.
Tyson, C. A. Marine Amphibious Landing in Korea, 1871. Marine Corps History Division, Naval Historical Foundation, 2007.

Endnotes:

[1] There were three distinct wars: 1816-19, 1835-42, 1855-58. In total, the Seminole Wars became the longest and most expensive Indian wars in US history.

[2] Also, Red Stick War, and Creek Civil War.

[3] Harris served as a US Marine for 50 years. As commandant, his tasks were challenging. He lost one-third of his officers at the beginning of the Civil War, was forced to give up a full battalion to augment the US Secret Service, and came to grips with the fact that with such a small force, there is little the Marine Corps could contribute to the Union effort. Harris was more or less content to remain “out of sight” and comply with Navy Regulations as best as he was able. Accordingly, US Marines did not play a major role in expeditions and amphibious operations during the Civil War.

[4] General Zeilin approved the design of the now-famous Eagle, Globe, and Anchor emblem of the U. S. Marine Corps (1868). He is additionally credited with establishing many Marine Corps customs and traditions that remain with the Corps to this very day, including the Marine Corps Hymn, the officer’s evening dress uniform, and adoption of the Marine Corps motto, “Semper Fidelis.”

[5] When the bark Rover was wrecked and its crew came ashore in Formosa, natives attacked and massacred them. The US Navy landed a company of sailors and Marines to avenge this insult to American soverignty, but the enemy employed guerrilla tactics, which forced the landing force back to their ships. The lesson learned as a result was that Marines would have to learn how to think outside of the box.

The Intrepid Commodore

Joshua Barney c. 1800 I initially introduced my readers to Commodore Joshua Barney while recounting the Battle of Bladensburg, which occurred in 1814. His command of the Marines at Bladensburg (where the President of the United States placed himself under Barney’s command) piqued my interest in this heroic figure from America’s past. As it turns out, Commodore Barney was not simply a highly skilled naval officer, he was gutsy, determined, and resourceful, as well.

A son of Baltimore, Maryland [1], Joshua Barney (1759-1818) initially went to sea at the age of 12 in 1771. Four years later, he served as second-in-command to his brother-in-law aboard a merchant ship involved in European trade. When the brother-in-law died, Barney assumed command of the ship and navigated the ship to Nicard Occitan (Nice). There is much about his early years that we do not know, but he did marry twice and had children with both his wives.

Beginning in 1776, Barney served as a commissioned officer in the Continental Navy, the master of the Hornet, and at the time, the youngest commander of a Continental warship. In this capacity, he participated in the raid on New Providence, in the Bahamas, under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins. The Navy promoted him to lieutenant in recognition of his gallantry in the action between Wasp and the British brig [2], HMS Betsey. Later, while serving aboard Andrew Doria, he played a prominent role in the defense of the Delaware River. The British took Barney as a prisoner (and exchanged him) on several occasions during the Revolutionary War. In 1779, the British held him at the Old Mill Prison at Plymouth, England until he escaped in 1781. Barney wrote a memoir about his adventures, published in 1832 by his relatives, long after his death.

In April 1782, the Navy placed Barney in command of the Pennsylvania ship Hyder Ally. During the Battle of Delaware Bay, Barney captured the better-armed HMS General Monk. Monk was renamed General Washington and Barney was rewarded by giving him command of that ship. With orders to deliver dispatches to Benjamin Franklin in France. Barney’s return voyage to the United States carried news of peace with Great Britain and the end of the Revolutionary War.

After the war, Barney joined the French navy. The French appointed him to serve as a squadron commander with the rank of captain. From June through October 1796, Barney commanded the frigate [3] Harmonie, which was serving on station in the Caribbean and Chesapeake Bay. As the Napoleonic Wars did not begin until 1803, it does not appear that Captain Barney served under the French flag at that time.

The United States had no interest in becoming involved in the Napoleonic Wars, but the loss of commercial ships to British raiders, the illegal impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy, and the insult to national pride eventually brought the United States back to war with Great Britain in 1812. Even so, the United States was ill-prepared for another war, either on land or at sea. Were it not for the fact that the British were fully engaged with France in Europe, it might have gone very badly for the fledgling United States in the early days of this conflict. The Royal Navy was, at that time, the strongest navy in the world. In comparison, the United States Navy was but a flea on the backside of a rogue elephant.

Without a navy of any substance, the United States began to construct, commission, and capture ships to serve as warships. One of the more successful privateers was Joshua Barney of Baltimore, Maryland, who in 1812 was 53 years of age and living near Elk Ridge, Maryland. Because he had served under a foreign flag as a naval commander, the US Navy denied Barney command of a United States Navy ship; instead, the Navy offered him command of the privateer schooner Rossie. As a privateer, Barney excelled. On a single voyage, Barney captured four ships [4], eight brigs, three schooners [5], and three sloops [6], a total value of around 1.5 million pounds. By December of 1812, the Royal Navy was rampaging the Chesapeake Bay, blockading ports and taking what they wanted from shoreline villages and towns. Their first defeat came at the mouth of the Elizabeth River when the Royal Navy failed to seize Norfolk, Virginia —but as an act of revenge, the British sacked the town of Hampton. The American army’s commitment to operations in Canada left the Chesapeake Bay undefended, allowing the British navy to invade the American shore with impunity.

Despite its few resources and very little money, the United States government resolved to do something. This is when Captain Barney stepped forward with a plan to defend the Chesapeake. In those days, it was easy for a citizen to approach the President of the United States. Barney drew up his plan and delivered it personally to President Madison. It was as detailed a plan as anyone had ever seen, including sketches of gunboats that were like river-barges [7], equipped with oars and light sails, and armed with one large gun. As Barney envisioned it, these small vessels would be manned by local men, would draw attention to themselves but they would also be proficient in keeping an eye on the British navy. With a shallow draft, the barges would be able to withdraw close to shore where the British could not follow. One of Barney’s selling points was that the barges were relatively inexpensive to build and, once the war was over, the vessels could go on the block for commercial use.

President Madison was suitably impressed. He appointed Barney as Commander of the Chesapeake Bay Flotilla. Construction of the barges began in earnest and bounties were offered to entice men who would otherwise have served as privateers, or enlisted men in the land forces. News of the flotilla quickly spread, and this prompted the British to construct barges of their own on tangier Island. Within a short time, Barney had seven (7) 75’ barges, six (6) 50’ barges, two gunboats [8], one row galley [9], a lookout boat, and his flagship USS Scorpion [10].

With eighteen vessels (but scant supplies), Barney led his flotilla from Baltimore to attack Tangier Island and destroy the British efforts there. With the discovery of British reconnaissance troops near St. Jerome’s Creek, Barney decided to attack these men. The surprise was that a British warship was in hiding not far distant, causing Barney to make a rapid withdrawal into the Patuxent River. British captain Barrie, in command of HMS Dragon, blockaded the mouth of the Patuxent River and waited for reinforcements from HMS Jaseur and HMS Loire. Barney continued his withdrawal to the shores of St. Leonard’s Creek. Initially, with the realization that the British out-gunned him four to one, Barney saw little chance of besting the British, but his position offered an excellent defense. We remember this three-day battle as the Battle of the Barges. The conflict ended in a draw, but Barney did not lose a single man to British fire, while the Royal Navy suffered numerous casualties.

In August of 1814 48-British ships arrived in the Chesapeake with a contingent of 5,400 soldiers under the command of Major General Robert Ross. These troops landed at the little down of Benedict and began their march northwards. Admiral Sir George Cockburn, serving as overall commander-in-chief, sailed up the Patuxent River … altogether setting into motion the Battle of Bladensburg —the defense of the City of Washington. Given the timidity of the undisciplined American militia, all that really stood between General Ross’ army and Washington was Commodore Barney and around 500 sailors and Marines. Of course, we know that it was a futile defense and Barney was (once more) captured by the British. Although seriously wounded, Barney was well-treated by the British, who congratulated him on his gallantry under fire. Before his capture, Barney ordered his flotilla burned to keep them from falling into the hands of the British; the remnants of this force remain at the bottom of the Patuxent River today. With the peace came Barney’s release from captivity and he returned to his home in Anne Arundel County.

The wound he received in 1814 eventually killed Commodore Barney, who at his death was only 59 years old.

Sources:

S. Naval History and Heritage Command, Joshua Barney, online resource.
Barney, M. A Biographical Memoir of the Late Commodore Joshua Barney From Autographical Notes and Journals in Possession of His Family and Other Authentic Sources. Gray and Bowen, publishers, 1832.
Shomette, D. Shipwrecks on the Chesapeake. Centerville, MD: Tidewater Publishers (1982)
Ellis, J. J. His Excellency, George Washington. New York: Vintage Books, Random House, 2004

Endnotes:

[1] When Baltimore was still an American city.

[2] A brig is a two-mast square rigged ship.

[3] A frigate in the age of sail was a warship built for speed and maneuverability and could be a vessel of several sizes. Their principle batteries could be placed on a single deck, or on two decks with smaller guns. They were generally two small to stand in the line of battle. They were full rigged with square sails on three masts and mostly used as escort ships and patrolling. They usually carried 28 guns.

[4] In context, ship meaning ships of the line or full-rigged vessels with three or more full-rigged masts. Ships of the line were generally categorized as first, second, or third-rate vessels (more than 64-guns). Fourth-rate ships came into being in the mid-18th century (50-60 guns).

[5] A schooner is a fore and aft-rigged vessel with two or more masts, of which the foremast is shorter than the main.

[6] Sloops were fore-and-aft rigged vessels with a single mast. They were later powered warships between corvettes and frigates in overall size.

[7] Essentially, shoal-draft flat bottom boats normally constructed as river or canal transport of bulk goods.

[8] Gunboats were of various sizes and armaments with a single mast.

[9] An armed craft that used oars rather than sails but was often fitted with sails in addition to its oars.

[10] Scorpion was a self-propelled floating artillery battery, sloop rigged with oars. As part of the Chesapeake Bay flotilla, Scorpion was commanded by Major William B. Barney, Commodore Barney’s son.

244th Anniversary of the U. S. Marine Corps

November 10th is the 244th anniversary of the founding of the United States Marine Corps. If you’ve never served as a Marine, then you will never know what being a Marine is all about. If you’re interested, though, here’s a short glimpse of our history.

If you are a Marine (there are only two types: those still living (and have maintained their faith with us), and those who aren’t), then you are my brother or sister. To you, I wish the happiest (and safest) of all Marine Corps birthday celebrations.

Semper Fidelis, Marines

Mustang sends …

Diminished Honor

Occasionally, one wonders, “What in the hell is the matter with people?” I have to say that the American navy has a rich history of honor, sacrifice, and fortitude, but there are a few blemishes, as well —which is true within all our military branches. Our military is representative of our society —its strengths and weaknesses. There is no justification for dwelling on them, but they do present important lessons and we either learn from them or repeat them to our sorrow.

Two disgraces stand out. The first involves Rear Admiral (then Captain) Leslie Edward Gehres, USN (1898-1975) whose primary contribution to the Navy was his toxic leadership while in command of the USS Franklin (CV-13) (1944-1945). Gehres assumed command of USS Franklin at Ulithi, relieving Captain J. M. Shoemaker. Under Shoemaker, USS Franklin had come under attack by Japanese kamikaze aircraft. At the change of command ceremony, Gehres told the ship’s crew, “It was your fault because you didn’t shoot the kamikaze down. You didn’t do your duty; you’re incompetent, lazy, and careless. You don’t know your jobs and I’m going to do my best to shape up this crew.” The vision of this takes us to the film Caine Mutiny, starring Humphrey Bogart—a psychopath placed in command of the fictional destroyer, USS Caine. One can only imagine how Captain Shoemaker felt having to listen to Gehres’ tripe on his last moment of command.

Gehres was raised in Rochester, New York and Newark, New Jersey. He enlisted in the New York Naval Militia in 1914. His unit was activated for World War I service and Gehres was assigned to USS Salem, USS Massachusetts, and USS Indiana. Subsequently, Gehres attended the Reserve Officer’s Course at the USN Academy. He was commissioned an ensign on 24 May 1918. Gehres received a regular commission in the Navy in September of that year while serving aboard USS North Dakota in the Atlantic. He was assigned to flight training at Pensacola, Florida and received his designation as a Naval Aviator in August 1927.

In November 1941, Gehres commanded Fleet Patrol Wing 4. He spent most of World War II in the Aleutian Islands. His subordinates referred to him as “Custer” because of his illogical tactics and erratic behavior. Despite a rather poor reputation among his subordinates, Gehres was advanced to the rank of Commodore —the first Naval Aviator to achieve this rank.

In November 1944, he took a reduction in rank designation in order to assume command of USS Franklin. His remarks at the change of command ceremony must not have done very much for crew morale. In 1945, Franklin was assigned to the coast of the Japanese homeland in support of the assault on Okinawa. Ship’s aircrews initiated airstrikes against Kagoshima, Izumi, and southern Kyushu. At dawn on 15 March, the ship had maneuvered to within 50 miles of the Japanese mainland and launched a fighter sweep against Honshu Island and Kobe Harbor. It was a stressful time for the crew, who within a period of six hours, had been called to battle stations on six separate occasions. Gehres finally allowed the crew to eat and sleep but maintained crewmen at gunnery stations.

A Japanese aircraft appeared suddenly from cloud cover and made a low-level run on the ship to drop two semi-armor piercing bombs. Franklin received a “last minute” warning of the approaching aircraft from USS Hancock, but Gehres never ordered “general quarters.” One-third of the crew were either killed or wounded. It was the most severe damage of any surviving USN aircraft carrier in World War II. As a result of officer and crew activities, ten officers and one enlisted man was awarded the Navy Cross —one of those being Gehres.

(Chaplain) Father Joseph T. O’Callaghan refused the Navy Cross for his participation in the aftermath of the Franklin bombing. Some speculated that the priest turned down the award because his heroic actions in the aftermath of the bombing reflected unfavorably on Gehres leadership as Commanding Officer. President Truman intervened, however, and Father O’Callaghan was awarded the Medal of Honor on 23 January 1946. True to form, Captain Gehres charged crewman who had jumped into the water, to avoid death by fire, with desertion. Gehres charges against crewmen were quietly dropped by senior naval commanders in the chain of command. Captain Gehres, while advanced to Rear Admiral (Lower Half), was never again assigned to a position of command. By 2011, Gehres was universally excoriated for significant deficiencies in leadership. Admiral Gehres became a study of poor leadership —but one wonders why the Navy promoted him to flag rank. His behavior in command of USS Franklin became the very definition of “toxic leadership.” Indeed, it was.

A second failure in navy leadership involved the case of Captain Charles B. McVay III (1898-1968). Captain McVay was a highly decorated navy officer in command of USS Indianapolis (CL/CA 35) when the ship was torpedoed and sunk in the Philippine Sea on 30 July 1945. Of the 1,197 crew, only 317 survived the sinking. Of all ship’s captains in the history of the US Navy, McVay was the only officer ever court-martialed for the loss of his ship in a combat action.

At the time, USS Indianapolis, a heavy cruiser (formerly the flagship of Admiral Raymond Spruance, 1943-1944), was on a top-secret mission and under the direct authority of the President of the United States. Its mission was to deliver two atomic bombs to Tinian Island. Because the mission was top secret, speed was of the essence and to prevent attention to her course, no escorts were authorized. This was a catastrophe of epic proportions. Captain McVay, wounded, ordered his crew to abandon ship. Of the 897 (approximate) crewmen who went overboard, 317 survived massive shark attacks over a period of five days.

Why was Captain (later promoted to Rear Admiral) court-martialed? The Navy accused him of hazarding his ship by not following a zig-zag course through the Philippine Sea. He was found “not guilty” of a second charge of “failing to order abandon ship in a timely manner.” The fact was, however, that the Navy failed the USS Indianapolis on several fronts. First, the Navy refused to provide the cruiser with escort ships, to which it was entitled during war. Second, the Navy delayed its rescue of the crew (owing to the secret mission assigned to the ship) and no report of an overdue ship was made, again owing to the nature of its secret mission.

A navy court of inquiry recommended that Captain McVay be court-martialed. Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander, U. S. Pacific Fleet disagreed, but he was overruled by the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Ernest J. King [1]. The Japanese commander of the submarine that sank Indianapolis was called to testify at McVay’s court-martial. He stated that given the proximity of Indianapolis to his submarine, zigzagging wouldn’t have made any difference —Indianapolis was dead the minute the torpedoes were fired. Ultimately, Admiral King ordered any punishments to be set aside.

Captain McVay suffered for the remainder of his life over the death of his crew, but not a single man lost was the result of McVay’s competence. After the loss of his wife to cancer in 1967, Charlie McVay took his own life in 1968. This too was a failure of Navy leadership. McVay was a good man chastised for no good reason other than as a scapegoat for poor Navy leadership.

Sources:

The Day the Carrier Died: How the Navy (Nearly) Lost an Aircraft Carrier in Battle. James Holmes, National Interest Newsletter, 28 April 2019
Stanton, D. In Harm’s Way: The Sinking of the USS Indianapolis and the Extraordinary Story of Its Survivors. Reed City Productions, 2001
Hulver, R. A. and Peter C. Luebke, Ed. A Grave Misfortune: The USS Indianapolis. Naval History and Heritage Command, 2018.

Endnotes:

[1] According to author Richard F. Newcomb (Abandon Ship), Admiral King’s insistence that Captain McVay appear before a court-martial was because Captain McVay’s father, admiral McVay (II) once censored King, as a junior officer for regulatory infractions. According to Newcomb, Admiral King never forgot a “grudge.”